Defining wicked problems for public policy: The case of Mexico's disappearances
| Autor | Monica Naime |
| Cargo | PhD candidate at CIDE and University of Bergen |
| Páginas | 64-80 |
ESTUDIOS 64
GAPP, número 23, mayo-octubre de 2020
Sección: ESTUDIOS
Recibido: 18-01-2018
Modicado: 02-06-2019
Aceptado: 02-06-2019
DOI: 10.24965/gapp.i23.10648
Páginas: 64-80
Definiendo problemas perversos para las políticas públicas:
El caso de las desapariciones en México
Defining wicked problems for public policy: The case of Mexico’s
disappearances
Monica Naime
Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas (México)
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4854-6593
monica.naime@uib.no
NOTA BIOGRAFICA
PhD candidate at CIDE and University of Bergen. Master in International law by the Graduate Institute
of International and Development Studies, Switzerland. Lawyer and internationalist, she has taught at
UNAM and at ITAM, Mexico. Her research topics include policy, organization theory and critical approa-
ches to law.
ABSTRACT
Wicked problem literature is increasingly popular, but empirical studies about its relation to public policy
are scarce. Additionally, there is no consensus on the convenience of Public Administration as policy
makers addressing wicked problems by artificially defining and structuring them. The purpose of the
paper is to address these gaps, specifically how, in practice, governments handle wicked problems.
Two possible alternatives are discussed: either policy makers are rational, or rather they use heuristics
for problem definition. The research focuses on problem definition as part of the policy process. In
particular, how the definition of the particular wicked problematic situation was reflected in legislation:
disappearances in Mexico. The case shows that forced disappearances is an heterogeneous
phenomenon that can be considered a wicked problem, which further increases the complexity
of policies that aim to tackle it. Also, results of applying congruence tests show that policy-makers
structure wicked problems when defining them, but after a certain amount of energy has been spent on
this task, policy makers employ heuristic devices. This contributes to understand how flesh and bone
decision-makers build public policies.
KEYWORDS
Wicked problems; public policy; problem definition; public administration; disappearances.
RESUMEN
La literatura sobre problemas perversos es cada vez más popular, pero estudios empíricos sobre su
relación con las políticas públicas son escasos. Además, no existe consenso sobre la conveniencia de que
la administración pública estructure artificialmente este tipo de problemas. El propósito del documento es
abordar estas brechas, específicamente cómo, en la práctica, los gobiernos manejan problemas perversos.
Se discuten dos alternativas: o los responsables de la formulación de políticas son racionales o, más
bien, utilizan la heurística para la definición del problema. La investigación se centra en la definición de
problemas como parte del proceso de políticas públicas. En particular, cómo la definición de un problema
perverso particular se reflejó en la legislación: las desapariciones en México. El caso muestra que las
desapariciones forzadas son un fenómeno heterogéneo que puede considerarse un problema perverso, lo
ESTUDIOS 65
Monica Naime
Dening wicked problems for public policy: The case of Mexico’s disappearances
GAPP. Nueva Época – N.o 23, mayo-octubre 2020 – ISSN: 1989-8991 – DOI: 10.24965/gapp.i23.10648 – [Págs. 64-80]
que aumenta aún más la complejidad de las políticas que apuntan a enfrentarlo. Además, los resultados
del método de congruencia muestran que los responsables de la formulación de políticas estructuran
problemas complejos al definirlos, pero después de gastado una cierta cantidad de energía en esta tarea,
los responsables de la formulación de políticas emplean heurísticas. Esto contribuye a comprender cómo
los responsables de la toma de decisiones construyen políticas públicas.
PALABRAS CLAVE
Problemas perversos; política pública; definición del problema público; administración pública; desapariciones.
SUMARIO
1. INTRODUCTION. 2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK. 2.1. WICKED PROBLEMS. 2.2. WICKED PRO-
BLEMS AND RATIONALITY: THE INSTRUMENTAL PERSPECTIVE AND BEYOND. 2.3. WICKED PRO-
BLEMS AND HEURISTICS: THE INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE AND BEYOND. 3. EMPIRICAL STUDY.
3.1. DISAPPEARANCES AS A WICKED PROBLEM. 3.2. WICKED DISAPPEARANCES IN THE MEXICAN
CONTEXT. 3.3. DISAPPEARANCES IN MEXICO. 4. IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION. REFERENCES.
1. INTRODUCTION
Wicked problems are increasingly popular (Xiang & Head, 2013). More and more situations and pro-
blems are being considered wicked, from climate change, to terrorism, passing through drug policy, crime,
public health, urban planning, poverty, disadvantaged groups, airport baggage handling, etc. Wickedness
generally refers to complex, ambiguous and uncertain problems that cannot be solved, but rather resolved
(Daviter, 2019; Rittel & Webber, 1973, p. 160).
Rittel first coined the concept, while he was in the Architecture Department of the University of Califor-
nia, Berkeley, to refer to those problems that are «ill-formulated, where the information is confusing, where
there are many clients and decision makers with conflicting values, and where the ramifications in the whole
system are thoroughly confusing» (Churchman, 1967, p. B141). Initially, in addition of being a proposal for a
new category of problems, it was also a call for honesty in disclosing the entanglement of certain problems
and solutions (Rittel, 1972; Rittel & Webber, 1973).
Since then, the concept has been applied to a variety of situations and problems (Alford & Head, 2017;
Peters, 2017). It may very well be that globalization is the reason behind the increasing complexity of problems
(Courtney, 2001). However, if wickedness is the norm, then the concept will be less and less useful towards cons-
tructing a research agenda in wicked problems: conceptual stretching (Sartori, 1970) is not without consequences.
The literature on wicked problems can be divided into three types of research agendas. First, the concept
itself (Camillus, 2008; Head, 2008; Head & Alford, 2008; Kreuter, De Rosa, Howze, & Baldwin, 2004; McCall
& Burge, 2016; Roberts, 2000). Second, classifying a certain problem as wicked (Allen & Gould Jr., 1986;
Burge & McCall, 2014; Hunter, 2007; Kramer, 2011; Newman & Head, 2017; Salwasser, 2004). Third, once
a wicked problem has been identified, how to best tackle it (Briggs, 2007; Conklin, 2006; Grint, 2010; Klijn &
Koppenjan, 2014). On this third category, literature emphasizes the role of coordination and collaboration as
a way to tackling these problems (Bouckaert, Peters, & Verhoest, 2010; Daviter, 2017; Khademian & Weber,
2008; Lægreid & Rykkja, 2015; Roberts, 2000), which is transcendent within Public Administration theory,
notably post-New Public Management literature.
Nonetheless, there are scarce studies on the empirical relation between problem definition, wicked pro-
blems and public policy, especially in developing countries. This relation has been referred to as the «second-
generation approach» to wicked problems (Head, 2018).
My purpose is to address this relation, specifically regarding the role of Public Administration in problem
definition. The focus is on problem definition in practice, leaving its relation with policy implementation, policy
capacities, and other aspects of the policy process for further studies. The specific research question is: What
kind of problem definition strategy is adopted by Public Administration while facing wicked problems?
In order to answer this question, I set about to see which theoretical approach is more pertinent to ex-
plain how Public Administration defines wicked problems, between bounded rationality and heuristics, which
can be considered as derivation of the instrumental and institutional perspective, respectively (Christensen,
Lægreid, Roness, & Røvik, 2007). The case study is especially interesting, since Public Administration is a
source of the problem.
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